Typology of World Cities According to their Level of Automobile Dependence and Gasoline Use

	Class I	Class II	Class III	Class IV	Class V
Land use intensity
Urban density (pers./ha)	12.2	15.4	42.1	58.0	117.3
Employment density (jobs/ha)	6.0	7.3	23.9	32.9	53.9
Outer area density (pers./ha)	10.7	12.8	32.8	48.7	83.9
Outer area employment density (jobs/ha)	4.3	5.0	12.5	18.8	28.5
Inner area density (pers./ha)	23.7	45.1	81.7	83.0	331.4
Inner area employment density (jobs/ha)	19.5	37.2	65.4	67.1	211.3
Orientation to non-automobile modes
Total vehicles per 1000 people	684	570	422	366	254
Car per 1000 people	539	479	367	318	192
Per capita car passenger kms	12,822	11,359	7,384	5,185	2,966
Per capita public transportation passenger kms	362	887	1,664	1,890	2,519
Proportion of passenger kms on public transportation (%)	2.9	7.4	18.6	27.2	49.2
Proportion of workers using public transportation (%)	8.6	19.3	32.0	33.3	52.5
Proportion of workers using private transportation (%)	87.2	74.4	51.7	45.4	23.7
Proportion of workers using foot and bicycle (%)	4.2	6.3	16.3	21.3	23.8
Level of traffic restraint
Length of road per person (m)	8.8	5.7	3.0	1.9	1.1
Parking spaces per 1000 CBD jobs	514	208	160	185	137
Vehicles per km of road	91	105	159	193	247
Car kms per km of road	1,068,857	1,364,838	1,723,132	1,725,693	1,665,405
Degree of centralization
CBD population density (pers./ha)	14.2	45.6	78.7	89.2	158.6
Proportion of population in CBD (%)	0.3	0.7	1.5	3.9	3.9
Proportion of jobs in CBD (%)	11.4	15.0	18.4	20.7	19.8
Public transportation performance
Vehicle kms per person	29.6	47.9	74.1	86.6	86.1
Passenger trips per person	46.1	106.3	229.6	324.3	371.4
Passenger trips per vehicle km	1.5	2.3	3.3	3.9	4.4
System average speed (km/hr)	24.0	31.3	30.8	30.9	31.5
Energy use per passenger km (Mj)	2.12	1.13	0.88	0.58	0.52
Proportion public transport passenger kms on trains (%)	13.3	53.9	54.9	51.0	51.4
Transportation energy conservation status	Very poor	Generally poor but a few positive features	Significant conservation	Strongly conserving	Very strongly conserving
Gasoline use per capita	53,049	44,355	22,846	12,445	8,588
Cities	Phoenix, Houston, Denver, Detroit, Perth, Adelaide, Los Angeles, Brisbane	Washington, Melbourne, Boston, Chicago, San Francisco, Sydney	Toronto, New York, Copenhagen, Hamburg, Zurich, Brussels	Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Berlin (West), Vienna, London, Stockholm	Munich, Singapore, Paris, Hong Kong, Tokyo

Source: adapted from Kenworthy and Newman, 1990.

The above table undertakes a comparison between transportation / land use systems of 31 large cities in developed countries. Five major classes can be identified:

Class I. Very high automobile dependence, almost no role for public transport, walking and cycling, very high gasoline use.
Class II. High automobile dependence, minor though significant role for public transport, walking and cycling, high gasoline use.
Class III. Moderate automobile dependence, important role for public transport walking and cycling, moderate gasoline use.
Class IV. Low automobile dependence, public transport, walking and cycling equal with cars, low gasoline use.
Class V. Very low automobile dependence, public transport, walking and cycling more important than cars, very low gasoline use.

Efficient and productive cities are not necessarily linked with energy consumption per capita because of the heterogeneity of conditions. The first two groups of cities (class I and II) are characterized by low densities and a reliance on the car for mobility, while the last three (class III, IV and V) have higher densities and rely on public transit. It is even possible to suggest that land use externalities are likely to be major sources of diminishing returns for urban environments. Class I and II cities will be the first to face acute environmental externalities imposed by land uses.

Copyright © 1998-2008, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. Permission MUST be requested prior to use.