1. The Economic Importance of Transportation

The transport sector is an important component of the economy impacting on development and the welfare of populations. When transport systems are efficient, they provide economic and social opportunities and benefits that impact throughout the economy. When transport systems are deficient, they can have an economic cost in terms of reduced or missed opportunities. Transport also carries an important social and environmental load, which cannot be neglected. From a general standpoint, the economic impacts of transportation can be direct and indirect:

• Direct impacts related to accessibility change where transport enables larger markets and enables to save time and costs.
• Indirect impacts related to the economic multiplier effect where the price of commodities or services drop and/or their variety increases.

The impacts of transportation are not always intended, and can have unforeseen consequences such as congestion. Mobility is one of the most fundamental and important characteristics of economic activity as it satisfies the basic need of going from one location to the other, a need shared by passengers, freight and information. All economies do not share the same level of mobility as most are in a different stage in the transition. Economies that possess greater mobility are often those with better opportunities to develop than those suffering from scarce mobility. Reduced mobility impedes development while greater mobility is a catalyst for development. Mobility is thus a reliable indicator of development.

Providing this mobility is an industry that offers services to its customers, employs people and pays wages, invests capital and generates income. The economic importance of the transportation industry can thus be assessed from a macroeconomic and microeconomic perspective:

• At the macroeconomic level (the importance of transportation for a whole economy), transportation and the mobility it confers are linked to a level of output, employment and income within a national economy. In many developed countries, transportation accounts between 6% and 12% of the GDP.
• At the microeconomic level (the importance of transportation for specific parts of the economy) transportation is linked to producer, consumer and production costs. The importance of specific transport activities and infrastructure can thus be assessed for each sector of the economy. Transportation accounts on average between 10% and 15% of household expenditures while it accounts around 4% of the costs of each unit of output in manufacturing.

Transportation links together the factors of production in a complex web of relationships between producers and consumers. The outcome is a more efficient division of production by an exploitation of geographical comparative advantages, as well as the means to develop economies of scale and scope. The productivity of space, capital and labor is thus enhanced with the efficiency of distribution. It is acknowledged that economic growth is increasingly linked with transport development. The following impacts can be assessed [Weisbrod, 2007]:

• Networks. Setting of routes enabling new or existing interactions between economic entities.
• Performance. Improvement in cost and time attributes for existing passenger and freight movements.
• Reliability. Improvement in the time performance, notably in terms of punctuality, as well as reduced loss or damage.
• Market size. Access to a wider market base where economies of scale in production, distribution and consumption can be achieved.
• Productivity. Increases in productivity from the access to a larger and more diverse base of inputs (raw materials, parts, energy or labor) and broader markets for diverse outputs (intermediate and finished goods).

2. Transportation and Economic Development

Transportation developments that have taken place since the beginning of the industrial revolution have been linked to growing economic opportunities. At each stage of human societal development, a particular transport mode has been developed or adapted. However, it has been observed that throughout history that no single transport has been solely responsible for economic growth. Instead, modes have been linked with the direction and the geographical setting in which growth was taking place. For instance, major flows of international migration that occurred since the 18th century were linked with the expansion of international and continental transport systems. Transport has played a catalytic role in these migrations, transforming the economic and social geography of many nations. Concomitantly, transportation has been a tool of territorial control and exploitation, particularly during the colonial era where resource-based transport systems supported the extraction of commodities in the developing world.

While some regions benefit from the development of transport systems, others are often marginalized by a set of conditions in which inadequate transportation play a role. Transport by itself is not a sufficient condition for development, however the lack of transport infrastructures can been seen as a constraining factor on development. Investment in transport infrastructures is thus seen as a tool of regional development, particularly in developing countries and for the road sector. The relationship between transportation and economic development is thus difficult to formally establish and has been debated for many years. The complexity lies in the variety of possible impacts:

• Timing of the development varies as the impacts of transportation can either precede, occur during or take place after economic development. The lag, concomitant and lead impacts make it difficult to separate the specific contributions of transport to development, therefore. Each case study appears to be specific to a set of timing circumstances that are difficult to replicate elsewhere.
• Types of impacts vary considerably. The spectrum of impacts range from the positive through the permissive to the negative. In some cases transportation impacts can promote, in others they may hinder economic development in a region. In many cases, few, if any, direct linkages could be clearly established.

Cycles of economic development provide a revealing conceptual perspective about how transport systems evolve in time and space as they include the timing and the nature of the transport impact on economic development. Transport, as a technology, typically follows a path of experimentation, introduction, adoption and diffusion and, finally, obsolescence, each of which has an impact on economic development. In addition, transport modes and infrastructures are depreciating assets that constantly require maintenance and upgrades. At some point, their useful lifespan is exceeded and the vehicle must be retired or the infrastructure rebuilt. Thus, transport investments for their amortization must consider the lifespan of the concerned mode or infrastructure. In general, transport technology can be linked to five major waves of economic development (see Chapter 1, Concept 3 for a detailed overview) where a specific mode or system emerged:

• Seaports. Linked with the early stages of European expansion from the 16th to the 18th centuries. They supported the development of international trade through colonial empires, but were constrained by limited inland access.
• Rivers and canals. The first stage of the industrial revolution in the late 18th and early 19th centuries was linked to the development of canal systems in Western Europe and North America, mainly to transport heavy goods. This permitted the development of rudimentary and constrained inland distribution systems.
• Railways. The second stage of industrial revolution in the 19th century was intimately linked to the development and implementation of rail systems enabling a more flexible inland transportation system.
• Roads. The 20th century saw the development of road transportation systems and automobile manufacturing. Individual transportation became a commodity available to the masses, especially after the Second World War. This process was reinforced by the development of highway systems.
• Airways and information. The later part of the 20th century saw the development of global air and telecommunication networks in conjunction with the globalization of economic activities. New organization, control and maintenance capacities were made possible. Electronic communications have become consistent with transport functions, especially in the rapidly developing realm of logistics and supply chain management.

Contemporary trends have underlined that economic development has become less dependent on relations with the environment (resources) and more dependent on relations across space. While resources remain the foundation of economic activities, the commodification of the economy has been linked with higher levels of material flows of all kinds. Concomitantly, resources, capital and even labor have shown increasing levels of mobility. This is particularly the case for multinational firms that can benefit from transport improvements in two significant markets:

• Commodity market. Improvement in the efficiency with which firms have access to raw materials and parts as well as to their respective customers. Thus, transportation expands opportunities to acquire and sell a variety of commodities necessary for industrial and manufacturing systems.
• Labor market. Improvement in the access to labor and a reduction in access costs, mainly by improved commuting (local scale) or the use of lower cost labor (global scale).

3. Transport as a Factor of Production

Transportation is an economic factor of production of goods and services. It provides market accessibility by linking producers and consumers. An efficient transport system with modern infrastructures favors many economic changes, most of them positive. The major impacts of transport on economic processes can be categorized as follows:

• Geographic specialization. Improvements in transportation and communication favor a process of geographical specialization that increases productivity and spatial interactions. An economic entity tends to produce goods and services with the most appropriate combination of capital, labor, and raw materials. A given area will thus tend to specialize in the production of goods and services for which it has the greatest advantages (or the least disadvantages) compared to other areas as long as appropriate transport is available for trade. Through geographic specialization supported by efficient transportation, the economic productivity is promoted. This process is known in economic theory as comparative advantages.
• Large scale production. An efficient transport system offering cost, time and reliability advantages permits goods to be transported further. This facilitates mass production through economies of scale because more markets can be accessed. The concept of “just-in-time” has further expanded the productivity of production and distribution. Thus, the more efficient transportation becomes, the larger the markets that can be serviced and the larger the scale of production.
• Increased competition. When transport is efficient, the potential market for a given product (or service) increases, and so does competition. A wider array of goods and services becomes available to consumers through competition which tends to reduce costs and promote quality and innovation.
• Increased land value. Land which is adjacent or serviced by good transport services generally has greater value due to the utility it confers to many activities. In some cases, the opposite can be true. Land located near airports and highways, near noise and pollution sources, will thus suffer from corresponding diminishing land value.

Transport also contributes to economic development through job creation and its derived economic activities. Accordingly, a large number of direct (freighters, managers, shippers) and indirect (insurance, packaging, handling, travel agencies, transit operators) employment are associated with transport. Consumers take economic decisions on products, markets, costs, location, prices which are themselves based on transport services, their availability, costs and capacity.

4. Socioeconomic Impacts

While many of the economic impacts of transportation are positive, there are also significant negative impacts that are assumed by individuals or by the society in one way or another. Among the most significant are:

• Mobility gaps. Since mobility is one of the fundamental components of the economic benefits of transportation, its variations are likely to have substantial impacts on the opportunities of individuals. Mobility needs do not always coincide due to several factors, namely the lack of income, lack of time, lack of means and the lack of access. People’s mobility and transport demands thus depend on their socioeconomic situation. The higher the income, the higher the mobility, which may give rise to substantial mobility gaps between different population groups. Gender gaps exist in mobility as women tend to have lower incomes. Mobility gaps are particularly prevalent for long distance travel. With the development of air transport, a segment of the global population has achieved a very high level of mobility for their business and leisure activities, while the great majority of the global population has little mobility. This issue is expected to become more acute as the population of many of the most advanced countries is aging rapidly, which implies that access to mobility will not be an income issue but an age issue. By 2020, about 10% of the global population (719 million) will be over 65 while by 2050 it will be 16% (1,492 million).
• Costs differences. Locations that have low levels of accessibility, tend to have higher costs for many goods (sometimes basic necessities such as food) as most have to be imported, often over long distances. The resulting higher transport costs inhibit the competitiveness of such locations and limits opportunities. Consumers and industries will pay higher prices, impacting on their welfare (disposable income) and competitiveness.
• Congestion. With the increased use of transport systems, it has become increasingly common for parts of the network to be used above design capacity. Congestion is the outcome of such a situation with its associated costs, delays and waste of energy. Distribution systems that rely upon on-time deliveries are particularly susceptible to congestion.
• Accidents. The use of transport modes and infrastructure is never entirely safe. Every motorized vehicle contains an element of danger and nuisance. Due to human errors and various forms of physical failures (mechanical or infrastructural) injuries, damages and even death occur. Accidents tend to be proportional to the intensity of use of transport infrastructures which means the more traffic the higher the probability for an accident to occur. They have important socioeconomic impacts including healthcare, insurance, damage to property and the loss of life. The respective level of safety depends on the mode of transport and the speed at which an accident occurs. No mode is completely safe but the road remains the most dangerous medium for transportation, accounting for 90% of all transport accidents on average (Statistics for OECD countries). China has one of the highest car accident death rates in the world, with more than 110,000 fatalities per year (300 per day), a factor mainly due to recent growth in vehicle ownership.

• Air quality. Atmospheric emissions from pollutants produced transportation, especially by the internal combustion engine, are associated with air pollution, acid rain and the potential for global warming. Some pollutants (NOx, CO, O3, VOC, etc.) can produce respiratory troubles and aggravate cardiovascular illnesses. In urban regions, about 50% of all air pollution emanates from automobile traffic.
• Noise. A major irritant, noise can impact on human health and most often human welfare. Noise can be manifested in three levels depending on emissions intensity; psychological disturbances (perturbations, displeasure), functional disturbances (sleep disorders, loss of work productivity, speech interference) or physiological disturbances (health issues such as fatigue, and hearing damage). Noise and vibration associated with trains, trucks, and planes in the vicinity of airports are major irritants.
• Water quality. Accidental and nominal runoff of pollutants from transport such as oil spills, are sources of contamination for both surface water and groundwater.
• Land take. Transport is a large consumer of space when all of its supporting infrastructure and equipment are considered. Furthermore, the planning associated with these structures does not always consider aesthetic values as is often the case in the construction of urban highways. These visual impacts have adverse consequences on the quality of life of nearby residents.