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Dr. Boonghee Yoo
Professor
of Marketing and International Business
Frank G. Zarb School
of Business, Hofstra University
Yoo, Boonghee and
Seung-Hee Lee (2011), "An
Asymmetrical Effect of Past Experiences with Genuine Fashion Luxury Brands
and Their Counterfeits on Purchase Intention of Each," forthcoming
in Journal of Business Research. (Abstract) As
counterfeiting activity continues to thrive around the world, marketers of
fashion luxury brands work hard to discourage counterfeiting and to protect
their revenues. This research evaluates the business risk related to fashion
counterfeit consumption behavior by examining the effect of past experiences
with counterfeit luxury brands (CLBs) and genuine luxury brands (GLBs). Based
on survey data from five designer fashion product categories, Study 1 finds
an asymmetrical effect that past experiences with GLBs are negatively related
to purchase intention of CLBs, whereas past experiences with CLBs are not
related to purchase intention of GLBs. Study 2, based on experimental data
from two luxury handbag brands with realistic price information, confirms the
results of Study 1. This study also discusses research and managerial
implications. (Keywords) fashion marketing, genuine luxury brands,
counterfeit luxury brands, counterfeiting, fashion, purchase intention,
asymmetrical effect, income, brand name, price. Yoo,
Boonghee, Naveen Donthu, and Tomasz Lenartowicz (2011), "Measuring
Hofstede’s Five Dimensions of Cultural Values at the Individual Level:
Development and Validation of CVSCALE," Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 23 (3/4), 193-210. (Abstract)
Hofstede’s (1980 and 2001) renowned five-dimensional measure of cultural
values is the overwhelmingly dominant metric of culture. His measure has been
used as a contextual variable. But it is often required to directly measure
cultural values for individual consumers or managers. The purpose of this
research is to respond to the call for developing a psychometrically sound
measure of Hofstede’s culture at the individual level. Past research in this
area has developing a scale for only one of Hofstede’s dimensions, a highly
work-oriented scale, or a scale with poor reliability. By overcoming every
major weakness of past studies, this research offers CVSCALE, a 26-item
five-dimensional scale of individual cultural values that assesses Hofstede’s
cultural dimensions at the individual level. The scale shows adequate
reliability, validity, and across-sample and across-national
generalizability.(Keywords) Geert Hofstede, culture, cultural values, scale
development, individual level, masculinity-femininity, uncertainty avoidance,
collectivism-individualism, long-term orientation, power distance. Thelen,
Shawn T., Boonghee Yoo, and Vincent P. Magnini
(2011), "An
Examination of Consumer Sentiment toward Offshored
Services," Journal of the
Academy of Marketing Science, 39 (2), 270-289 (Thelen and Yoo are
co-first authors). (Abstract) This
research identifies and analyzes the underlying elements and consequences of
consumer sentiment toward offshored services. This
is accomplished by initially conceptualizing consumer sentiment toward offshored services, then developing and validating a
multidimensional scale (OFFSERVSENT) to measure the construct. This research
determines that consumer sentiment toward offshored
services is instrumental in explaining consumers’ commitment to and global
attitudes toward firms that offshore services as well as consumers’ word-ofmouth behavior. The strength of these relationships
varies depending upon the type of service being offshored.
The results of this research contribute to the study of services offshoring, an emerging and fertile area of research for
the services and marketing disciplines, and provide practitioners with
increased knowledge regarding offshoring decisions.
(Keywords) Outsourcing, Offshoring, Services,
Sentiment, Ethnocentrism, Scale development, Free-trade resentment,
Protectionism, Foreign-worker enmity, Animosity, Data security,
Communication, Customer/foreign-worker disconnect, Service marketing,
Customer service. Swani,
Kunal and Boonghee Yoo (2010), “Interactions
between Price and Price Deal,” Journal
of Product and Brand Management, 19 (2), 143-152. (Abstract) The
purpose of this study was to examine the interactive effect of price and
price deal. Specifically, we wanted to measure how consumers’ behavioral
intentions toward the brand are affected for a high-priced brand and a
low-priced brand when a price deal is offered. A two (price level: high
versus low; between) by two (price deal: absent versus 40% off; between)
experimental design was used. Study 1 tested the hypotheses for two existing
brands whereas Study 2 did so for a fictitious brand. The analysis confirmed
a strong interactive effect between price and price deal: price deals do not
have a uniform effect across brands but a different effect depending on the
price level of the brand. Specifically, for a high-priced brand, we found a
negative effect of price deals on behavioral intentions (brand equity, brand
loyalty, and purchase intention). On the contrary, for a low-priced brand, we
found a positive effect of price deals on each of the same behavioral
intention variables. (Keywords) Price, price deal, brand equity, brand
loyalty, purchase intention, luxury brand, and interaction. Lee,
Seung-Hee and Boonghee Yoo (2009), “ A Review
of Determinants of Counterfeiting and Piracy and the Proposition for Future
Research,” Korean Journal of Policy
Studies, 24 (1), 1-38. (Abstract) The
objective of this study is, through a review of current literature on product
counterfeiting and piracy, to propose specific topics that future research
needs to investigate. Specifically, the study calls for developing a
framework explaining the whole process of counterfeiting production,
distribution, and consumption; estimating the revenue losses more accurately;
surveying real buyers rather than students; examining a variety of
manufacturer and consumer motivations in contextual factors; and studying the
interactive complexity between the demand-side and supply-side driving
factors. In conclusion, the study discusses policy and research implications.
(Keywords) Counterfeiting, piracy, demand-side factors, supply-side factors,
policy making. Yoo,
Boonghee (2009), “ Cross-National
Invariance of the Effect of Personal Collectivistic Orientation on Brand
Loyalty and Equity: The United States versus South Korean Consumers,” (Abstract) This
study was designed to examine whether or not the effect of personal cultural
orientation on brand-related consumer behaviors functions invariably at the
individual level in two culturally opposite countries (South Korea and the
United States). Data were collected from college students from South Korea
and the U.S. A total of 415 eligible questionnaires were collected: 212
Koreans and 203 Americans. Data analysis was conducted using MANOVA. We found
that personal collectivistic orientation had a significant effect on both
brand loyalty and equity among both Americans and Koreans. Brand loyalty was
higher among people of high collectivism than those of low collectivism
across brands in both the U.S. and Korea samples. Likewise, brand equity was
also higher among people of high collectivism than those of low collectivism
across brands in both countries. These findings indicated that, regardless of
their national culture, collectivist consumers would show higher brand
loyalty and equity than individualist consumers. (Keywords) Collectivism,
Brand Loyalty, Brand Equity, Personal Cultural Orientation, Culture, MANOVA,
Korea, and the U.S. Yoo,
Boonghee (2009), “Developing
an Overall Ranking of 79 Marketing Journals: An Introduction of PRINQUAL to
Marketing,” Australasian Marketing
Journal, 17 (4), 160-174. (Abstract) The
PRINQUAL (PRINcipal components of QUALitative data) procedure transforms original variables
linearly or nonlinearly and optimizes the properties of the transformed
variables’ covariance or correlation matrix. During the transformation
procedure, PRINQUAL also imputes missing values measured at all levels of
measurement. Although the application of PRINQUAL is endless in marketing, it
is virtually unknown to marketing researchers. This study introduces PRINQUAL
to marketing by demonstrating its capability, which produces a composite
ranking of marketing journals across a variety of studies that used different
ways of rankings and ranked a different set of journals. The application
PRINQUAL integrates 13 studies and produces overall rankings of 79 marketing
journals. (Keywords) Optimal scaling, PRINQUAL procedure, Qualitative data,
Missing values, Missing data imputation, Journal ranking, Marketing journals. Yoo,
Boonghee and Seung-Hee Lee (2009), “Buy
Genuine Luxury Fashion Products or Counterfeits,” Advances in Consumer Research. 36, 280-286. (Abstract) The
research examined the effect of three groups of variables on purchase
intention of luxury fashion designer brands and their corresponding
counterfeits: past behavior (past purchases of counterfeits and originals),
attitudes toward buying counterfeits (by economic and hedonic benefits), and
individual characteristics (materialism, perception of future social status,
and self-image). Data of 324 Korean female students confirmed that the
variables were determinants of purchase intention of counterfeits and originals
and that purchase intention of counterfeits was positively related to
purchase intention of originals whereas purchase intention of originals was
negatively related to purchase intention of counterfeits. Yoo,
Boonghee and Naveen Donthu (2005), “The Effect of Personal
Cultural Orientation on Consumer Ethnocentrism: Evaluations and Behaviors of
U.S. Consumers toward Japanese Products,” Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 18 (1/2), 7-44. (Abstract) A
great challenge in the global environment lies in consumers’ reluctance to
buy imports rather than domestic products. Recently, research has begun to
explore the link between consumer type and adversarial attitudes toward
imports. However, relatively little is known about the relationship between
individual consumers’ cultural orientation and their bias against imports.
The objective of our research is to examine the relationship between cultural
orientation and consumer ethnocentrism. We hypothesize that each of
Hofstede’s (2001) five dimensions of cultural orientation, operationalized at the individual level, affects consumer
ethnocentrism. We test our hypotheses, investigating U.S. consumers
evaluations of and behaviors toward Japanese products. The results show that
collectivism (versus individualism), masculinity (versus femininity), and
uncertainty avoidance are related positively to consumer ethnocentrism,
whereas long-term (versus short-term) orientation are related negatively to
consumer ethnocentrism. The results also confirm the relationships between
consumer ethnocentrism and its consequential variables of U.S. consumers’
evaluations and behaviors toward Japanese products are meaningful and strong.
(Keywords) Personal cultural orientation, culture, values, consumer
ethnocentrism, Geert Hofstede, CETSCALE, foreign products, international
marketing. Dou, Wenyu, Boonghee Yoo, and Ma Liang Yu (2003), “Consumer Patronage of Ethnic
Portals,” International Marketing
Review, 20 (6), 661-677. (Abstract) The
emergence and diffusion of the Internet has prompted a surge in web portal
sites that are designed to meet the specific needs of ethnic Internet users
who are not native English speakers. These ethnic portal sites may be set up
by global portal giants (e.g. Yahoo!) or by local entrepreneurs (e.g.
netease.com in China). Often, because of the different origins of these
sites, they tend to have different operating philosophies and varying appeals
to ethnic Internet users. In this study, we first analyze the differences and
similarities among different types of ethnic portals. We then propose a
conceptual model concerning the factors that affect the patronage of ethnic
portals by ethnic Internet users. An empirical study was designed to test the
conceptual model with data collected from Mainland Chinese Internet users.
Finally, implications of the study results for ethnic portals are presented.
(Keywords) Internet marketing, World-wide web, Portals, Electronic commerce,
Marketing, China. Yoo,
Boonghee and Rujirutana Mandhachitara
(2003), “Estimating
Advertising Effects on Sales in a Competitive Setting,” Journal of Advertising Research, 43 (September),
310-321. (Abstract) Over
the last several decades, advertising effects on sales have been studied
without appropriately taking into consideration competitors’ advertising
activities. As a result, advertisers
often instinctively match competitors’ spending proportionately when it is
monitored. The weakness of such a
competitive parity approach is that they implicitly assume zero-sum
competition only. This study identifies
a variety of competitive conditions under which better budgeting strategies
can be formulated. Specifically, four
types of competition are conceptualized based on how an advertiser and its
competitors affect each other’s sales according to level of media advertising
spending. In addition, appropriate
strategies for setting advertising budgets to deal with each situation are
discussed. A mathematical method is
developed to measure advertising effectiveness for both the advertiser and
competitors on sales of a focal brand.
The method computes current and carryover effects, identifies which
type of competition the advertiser is operating in and, accordingly,
determines which budgeting strategy best suits the situation. In an empirical illustration the method was
applied to data collected monthly over eight years. The analyzed product was Scotch whisky sold
in Thailand. Yoo,
Boonghee and Naveen Donthu (2002), “Testing Cross-Cultural Invariance
of Brand Equity Creation Process,” Journal
of Product & Brand Management, 11 (6), 380-398. (Abstract) The
purpose of this study is to explore the cross-cultural generalizability of
Yoo, Donthu, and Lee’s (2000) brand equity creation process model. A two-step
approach is introduced and used to test the factorial invariance of the model
cross-culturally. The results reveal which marketing efforts and brand equity
dimensions have invariant effects on brand equity across the American and
Korean samples. Specifically, brand loyalty and perceived product quality do
not have an invariant effect on brand equity, while brand
awareness/associations have an equivalent effect. Price and store image show
an equivalent, positive effect on perceived quality; distribution intensity
has an equivalent, positive effect on both perceived quality and brand
loyalty; and price deals have an equivalent, negative effect on both
perceived quality and brand awareness/associations. But advertising has a
quite different effect on brand equity. The between-group differences in
brand equity formation process are explained from a cultural perspective.
(Keywords) Brand equity, Cross-cultural study, Factorial invariance test,
Marketing activities, The United States, South Korea. Dadzie,
Kofi Q., Wesley J. Johnston, Boonghee Yoo, and Tom G. Brashear (2002), “Measurement Equivalence
and Applicability of Core Marketing Concepts Across Nigerian, Kenyan,
Japanese and U.S. Firms: An optimal Scaling Approach,” Journal of Business and Industrial
Marketing, 17 (6), 430-455. (Abstract)
Establishing the validity and measurement equivalence of core marketing
concepts in the emerging market economies of Africa is a key step in
assessing the transferability of modern marketing theory and managerial
practice to these countries. However, measurement equivalence issues are
rarely addressed in studies of marketing practices in Africa. Accordingly,
this study examines the equivalence of core marketing concepts based on
interviews of 459 marketing managers from Kenya, Nigeria, Japan and the USA.
The results show that optimal scaling analysis of the managers’ evaluations
provide more valid and meaningful assessment than that of the raw data. The
managers’ evaluations of the concepts revealed amazingly similar or
prototypical perceptions of marketing’s core concepts and its applicability
in their organizations, despite the profound country environmental
differences. It appears that the concepts fall into two cross-national
categories of applicability that permeate the industrialized and developing
country categorization. Managerial and research implications are discussed.
(Keywords) Japan, Kenya, Marketing concept, Measurement, Nigeria, USA. Yoo,
Boonghee and Naveen Donthu (2002), “The Effects of Marketing Education
and Individual Cultural Values on Marketing Ethics of Students,” Journal of Marketing Education, 24
(August), 92-103. (Abstract) This
study investigates the relationships between marketing education and
individual cultural values and college students’ marketing ethics. Using
Vitell, Rallapalli, and Singhapakdi’s
marketing norms scale and Yoo, Donthu, and Lenartowicz’s five-dimensional
measure of culture operationalized at the
individual level, the study reveals that formal and informal marketing
educations are positively related to the level of marketing ethics.
Collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and Confucian dynamism are positively
related to the level of marketing ethics, whereas masculinity and power
distance are negatively related to the level of marketing ethics.
Implications for ethics education are discussed. (Keywords) Marketing ethics,
Marketing norms, Culture, Cultural orientations, CVSCALE, Price and
distribution norms, Information and contract norms, Product and promotion
norms, Obligation and disclosure norms, General honesty and integrity norms. Yoo,
Boonghee (2002), “Cross-Group
Comparisons: A Cautionary Note,” Psychology
& Marketing, 19 (April), 357-368. (Abstract) This
article alerts researchers to the importance of factorial invariance in
comparative studies. Cross-group or cross-national comparisons, without a
clear understanding of factorial structures, can result in misleading
conclusions regarding compared groups. The types and process of invariance
test are discussed. Then, as an empirical illustration, American consumer
ethnocentrism towards Japanese products is examined across gender and age. Yoo,
Boonghee and Naveen Donthu (2001), “Developing and Validating a
Multidimensional Consumer-Based Brand Equity Scale,” Journal of Business Research, 52 (April), 1-14. (Abstract) Little
systematic research has been done to develop a scale to measure
consumer-based brand equity. The authors report the results of a multistep
study to develop and validate a multidimensional consumer-based brand equity
scale (MBE) drawn from Aaker's and Keller's
conceptualizations of brand equity. A total of 1,530 American, Korean
American, and Korean participants evaluated 12 brands from three product
categories (athletic shoes, film for cameras, and color television sets).
Multistep psychometric tests demonstrate that the new brand equity scale is
reliable, valid, parsimonious, and generalizable
across several cultures and product categories. The authors discuss
theoretical and practical implications of the study. (Keywords)
Multidimensional brand equity scale, Multistep psychometric tests, Brand
equity. Yoo,
Boonghee and Naveen Donthu (2001), “Developing
a Scale to Measure the Perceived Quality of an Internet Shopping Site
(SITEQUAL),” Quarterly Journal of
Electronic Commerce, 2 (1), 31-47. (Abstract) As
Internet shopping gradually moves from a novelty to a routine way of
shopping, the quality of the Internet sites will play an important role in
differentiating sites. Internet
shopping sites must be of high quality to attract consumers and influence
their shopping decisions. The purpose
of this study is to develop and validate a psychometrically rigorous
instrument to measure the perceived quality of an Internet shopping site
(i.e., SITEQUAL). Candidate items were
generated based mainly on consumers’ own descriptions. Multiple methods and samples produced a
9-item scale of SITEQUAL, which consists of four dimensions. This scale can be used to evaluate the
quality of Internet shopping sites and examine how site quality affects
visitors’ online behavior, such as search patterns, site patronization, and
buying decisions. (Keywords) Internet shopping site, online shopping, online
shopping mall, e-tailing, site quality, perceived quality, quality criteria,
scale development, SITEQUAL, and web design. Yoo,
Boonghee, Naveen Donthu, and Sungho Lee (2000), “An Examination of Selected Marketing Mix
Elements and Brand Equity,” Journal
of the (Abstract) This
study explores the relationships between selected marketing mix elements and
the creation of brand equity. The authors propose a conceptual framework in
which marketing elements are related to the dimensions of brand equity, that
is, perceived quality, brand loyalty, and brand associations combined with
brand awareness. These dimensions are then related to brand equity. The
empirical tests using a structural equation model support the research
hypotheses. The results show that frequent price promotions, such as price
deals, are related to low brand equity, whereas high advertising spending,
high price, good store image, and high distribution intensity are related to
high brand equity. (Keywords) Brand equity, Multidimensional consumer-based
brand equity scale (MBE), consumer-based overall brand equity scale (OBE),
Perceived quality, Brand loyalty, Brand awareness, Brand associations, Price,
Store image, Distribution intensity, Advertising spending, Price deals. Donthu,
Naveen and Boonghee Yoo (1998), “Cultural Influences on
Service Quality Expectations,” Journal
of Service Research, 1 (November), 178-185. (Abstract)
Service quality has been conceptualized as the difference between perceived
service performance and expected service level. The authors study the effect
of consumers’ cultural orientation on their service quality expectations.
Using the Hofstede dimensions of culture operationalized
at the individual level and the dimensions of service quality from the
SERVQUAL scale, they develop and test hypotheses relating dimensions of
culture with overall service expectations and dimensions of those
expectations. Results show that consumers low on power distance have high
overall service quality expectations and expect responsive and reliable
service. Individualistic consumers have high overall service quality
expectations and expect empathy and assurance from the service provider.
Consumers high on uncertainty avoidance and short-term-oriented consumers
have high overall service quality expectations. Donthu,
Naveen and Boonghee Yoo (1998), “Retail Productivity
Assessment Using Data Envelopment Analysis,” Journal of Retailing, 74 (Spring), 89-105. (Abstract) This
article discusses various concerns about current approaches to retail
productivity measurement. Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), an operations
research-based performance evaluation methodology, is then introduced as an
appropriate technique for assessing store-level retail productivity. Data
Envelopment Analysis measures relative-to-best performance efficiency of
retail outlets characterized by multiple inputs and outputs. In an empirical
illustration, using data collected over time from retail stores of a
restaurant chain, the potential applications and strengths of Data
Envelopment Analysis in assessing retail productivity are highlighted. Yoo,
Boonghee, Naveen Donthu and Bruce K. Pilling (1998), “Channel
Efficiency: Franchise versus Non-Franchise Systems,” Journal of Marketing Channels, 6 (3/4), 1-15. (Abstract) This
study explores the overall competitiveness of franchises over non-franchises
based on the comparison of their operating efficiency at the state level.
Operating efficiency is assessed through Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA),
which is an operations research-based methodology to measure performance
efficiency in units characterized by multiple inputs and outputs. The results
showed that franchises are more efficient than non-franchises. Pilling,
Bruce K., Steve W. Henson, and Boonghee Yoo (1995), “Competition
among Franchises, Company-Owned Units, and Independent Operators: A
Population Ecology Application,” Special Issue of Franchising:
Contemporary Issues and Research, Journal
of Marketing Channels, 4 (1/2), 177-195. (Abstract)
Population Ecology, as a dynamic model of competition, is applied to the
study if franchise systems. The paper examines competition among populations
of franchises, company-owned units, and independent operators, the relative
responsiveness of each population to changes in its environment, and the
impact of level of market demand and population density on each population.
Census data from two sources, Franchising in the economy and the Census of
Retail Trade, are analyzed using Population Ecology methodologies. Directions
for future research efforts are provided.
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